18601935

1860–1935 refers to a historical span that covers the late 19th century and the interwar years. It begins in the era of rapid industrial expansion and ends as global systems were negotiating the consequences of war, economic crisis, and political realignment. The period is characterized by substantial political, social, technological, and cultural change that helped shape the modern world.

In politics and international relations, the era saw nation-building and imperial contest across Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Key developments include Italian unification in the 1860s and German unification in 1871, followed by broader shifts toward modern bureaucratic states and imperial governance. By the early 20th century, competing empires and rising nationalist movements contributed to a volatile international environment.

Technological and economic change was rapid. The Second Industrial Revolution brought advances in steel, chemicals, electricity, and machines that transformed production and everyday life. Innovations such as the telegraph and telephone, widespread electrification, the automobile, and powered flight revolutionized communication and transport. Mass media and consumer culture expanded in the 1920s, while global trade and finance linked distant economies more tightly than before.

Social and cultural currents included urbanization, labor organization, and reform movements. Women’s suffrage advanced in several countries during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Scientific and intellectual developments—alongside modernist movements in art and literature—reshaped knowledge and culture, challenging traditional norms.

Conflict and crisis defined much of the period. The World War I era redefined borders and power, followed by the 1917 Russian Revolution and the postwar settlement. The Great Depression began in 1929, and by the mid-1930s political extremism and rearmament were becoming prominent in some regions. The era’s legacies influenced the subsequent divergence and upheaval of the mid-20th century.