18481916

1848–1916 denotes a span of modern history that begins with the wave of liberal and nationalist revolutions in 1848 and ends in the midst of the First World War in 1916. It covers broad changes in politics, economy, society, and culture across Europe, the Americas, and parts of Asia and Africa.

Political and national developments: The 1848 revolutions highlighted the challenges to old monarchies and contributed to later state formation. Italy achieved unification in the 1860s–1870s, and Germany followed in 1871, producing consolidated nation-states. In Russia, reforms and modernization progressed during the latter half of the century, creating pressures that would culminate in upheaval in the early 20th century. Liberalism and nationalism expanded in many areas, even as autocratic elements persisted and incremental reforms extended, rather than transformed, political rights in various states.

Economy and technology: The period saw the Second Industrial Revolution, with advances in steel, electricity, chemical industries, transportation, and communications. These changes accelerated urbanization, altered labor relations, and reshaped global trade networks. Imperial expansion and colonial competition grew, most notably during the Scramble for Africa and related overseas ventures.

Society and culture: Mass education and rising literacy accompanied social movements aimed at worker rights, gender roles, and political participation. In the arts, Realism and, later, Impressionism influenced literature and painting. Scientific developments—from Darwinian biology to advances in medicine and physics—transformed intellectual life and daily practice.

War and end: World War I began in 1914, and by 1916 the conflict had drawn in many nations, marking a turning point that would reshape political boundaries and global power in the following decades.