purifications

Purifications refer to processes by which a substance is isolated from impurities, achieving a higher level of purity. Purity is defined by the concentration of desired components versus contaminants, often expressed as a percentage or by an impurity profile. Purification is essential in research, manufacturing, and environmental protection.

In chemistry and chemical engineering, purification techniques include distillation, crystallization, filtration, chromatography, and extraction. Distillation separates components by boiling point; crystallization relies on selective solidification; chromatography separates based on interactions with a stationary phase; filtration removes particulate matter; solvent extraction uses solubility differences. Process choices depend on chemical properties, scale, and required purity.

In biology and biochemistry, purification refers to isolating a biomolecule or cell type from a mixture. Common methods include precipitation, centrifugation, chromatography (such as ion-exchange, size-exclusion, affinity), electrophoresis, and ultrafiltration. Purification aims to maximize homogeneity and functional activity while minimizing loss.

Purification also applies to water, air, and soil. Water purification removes pathogens, chemicals, and particulates to meet regulatory standards using coagulation, filtration, disinfection, and advanced methods like reverse osmosis. Air purification removes pollutants via filtration, adsorption, and catalytic oxidation. Environmental purification includes remediation technologies to remove contaminants from soils or groundwater.

Quality control is integral, with tests for purity, identity, and safety. Purity levels are governed by standards for pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and food. Trade-offs between yield, cost, and purity are common, and purification strategies are designed to balance efficiency with regulatory compliance.