papacies

The papacy refers to the office and jurisdiction of the pope, the Bishop of Rome, who serves as the spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic Church. The pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter and the head of a worldwide communion.

Popes are elected by the College of Cardinals in a papal conclave after the death or abdication of a pope. Voting is by secrecy and typically requires a two-thirds majority. The pope serves for life in most cases, though there have been retirements, notably Pope Benedict XVI in 2013. The length of papacies has varied from a few months to more than three decades.

The pope holds supreme spiritual and doctrinal authority within the Catholic Church and oversees church governance, including appointments of bishops and the formulation of doctrine. Infallibility applies to certain defined statements of faith or morals proclaimed ex cathedra by the pope, a doctrine established by the First Vatican Council in 1870. The pope also serves as head of the Vatican City State, overseeing diplomatic and administrative functions. The Catholic Church is organized in a worldwide hierarchy of dioceses and congregations under papal leadership.

Historically, the papacy has been pivotal in religious, cultural, and political life in the Western world. It has experienced periods of strong temporal power as the ruler of the Papal States, followed by reforms and modernization after the unification of Italy and the later creation of Vatican City in 1929. Notable eras include the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) and the Counter-Reformation, the Second Vatican Council of the 1960s, and ongoing ecumenical and interfaith efforts.