orbitális

Orbitális is an adjective used in physics and chemistry to describe anything related to atomic or molecular orbitals, the regions where electrons are most likely to be found. In atoms, orbitals arise from solutions to the Schrödinger equation and are labeled by quantum numbers that define their energy, shape, and orientation.

Atomic orbitals come in sets associated with a principal quantum number n and an angular momentum quantum number l (0 for s, 1 for p, 2 for d, 3 for f). S orbitals are spherical, p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped and oriented along axes, while d and f orbitals have more complex shapes. Each orbital can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. The energies and ordering of orbitals depend on nuclear charge, electron shielding, and penetration, leading to rules such as Aufbau filling and Hund’s rule.

Molecular orbitals extend the concept to molecules. They are formed by linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO) and can be bonding or antibonding. Bonding orbitals lower the energy of a system, while antibonding orbitals raise it. Electron occupancy in molecular orbitals explains bond order, magnetism, and reaction behavior.

Hybridization is another orbital concept used to rationalize molecular geometry, describing the mixing of atomic orbitals on an atom to form new, equivalent orbitals (for example sp, sp2, sp3) that accommodate specific shapes and angles in molecules.

In practice, orbital concepts underpin spectroscopy, chemical bonding, materials science, and many areas of research and technology.