epistemologija

Epistemologija, or epistemology in English, is the branch of philosophy that investigates the nature, sources, and limits of human knowledge. It asks what knowledge is, how beliefs become justified, and whether knowledge is even possible. Central concerns include the analysis of knowledge as justified true belief, theories of justification, and the reliability of cognitive processes. The field also studies the sources of knowledge—perception, memory, testimony, and reasoning—and how bias, error, or deception can affect them. It addresses skepticism and how to respond to the claim that knowledge may be unattainable or severely constrained.

Historically, epistemology has deep roots in ancient philosophy and developed through modern thought. Plato and Aristotle explored certainty and sources of knowing; Descartes sought indubitable foundations; John Locke and David Hume emphasized experience and the limits of human understanding; Immanuel Kant argued that knowledge arises from the interaction between mind and world. In the 20th century, debates intensified around foundationalism versus coherentism, internalism versus externalism, and different theories of justification such as evidentialism and reliabilism. Gettier problems challenged traditional definitions of knowledge, spurring the development of approaches like virtue epistemology and social epistemology, which consider intellectual character and the role of communities, testimony, and epistemic justice.

Today, epistemology intersects with cognitive science, psychology, and information theory, examining how people form beliefs, reason under uncertainty, and evaluate evidence. It remains a dynamic field addressing the possibility, scope, and conditions of knowledge across ordinary and specialized contexts.