Syntheses

Synthesis is the process of combining two or more constituents to form a connected, more complex whole. In common usage, the term covers both the philosophical idea of integrating ideas and the practical scientific processes that construct new substances or materials. In science, a synthesis is a deliberate sequence of reactions designed to assemble a target compound from simpler starting materials. Chemical synthesis often involves planning known as retrosynthesis, controlling reaction conditions, selecting reagents, managing stereochemistry and regioselectivity, and purifying products. Yields, selectivity, and scalability are important concerns, and multistep syntheses may require protecting groups and careful sequencing of operations.

In biology and biochemistry, biosynthesis refers to the production of complex molecules within living organisms, drawing on metabolic pathways. Examples include protein synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, and lipid synthesis. Synthetic biology expands these ideas by engineering organisms or systems to produce specific compounds. In molecular biology, DNA synthesis and oligonucleotide synthesis are laboratory methods for constructing defined sequences of nucleotides.

In philosophy and theory, synthesis denotes the act of combining disparate ideas, theses, or data into a coherent framework, often contrasted with analysis or with a thesis–antithesis dynamic. The term has historical prominence in discussions of systems and knowledge organization.

Applications of synthesis range from pharmaceuticals and polymers to materials science and environmental chemistry. Advancements aim to improve efficiency, selectivity, sustainability, and safety, while minimizing waste and energy use.