Mineralization

Mineralization is the process by which minerals become incorporated into a material or environment, resulting in a solid phase with distinct mineral content. In geology, mineralization refers to the concentration and emplacement of economically important minerals within rocks and sediments. This can occur through hydrothermal processes, metasomatism, magmatic differentiation, or diagenetic/depositional reactions. Ore deposits form when fluids transport metals and precipitate them in fractures, pore spaces, or replacing existing minerals. Common ore minerals include pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and native metals such as gold and silver. Geological mineralization is classified by setting and ore-body geometry, yielding vein, replacement, disseminated, and sediment-hosted styles, among others.

In biology, mineralization (biomineralization) is the deposition of inorganic mineral phases within organic matrices to harden or strengthen tissues. Notable examples include bone and dentin, where calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite is deposited in a collagenous matrix; enamel, formed by specialized cells, generates a highly mineralized outer layer; and shells and teeth of various organisms also incorporate calcium carbonate or silica. Biomineralization is regulated by cellular processes, matrix proteins, pH, and ionic availability, and can be adaptive for strength, protection, or magnetic sensing in some species.

Pathological mineralization can occur as ectopic calcification in soft tissues, sometimes linked to aging or disease. Studying mineralization informs geology, paleoenvironments, materials science, and biomedical research.