Electrons

Electrons are subatomic particles with a negative electric charge, fundamental to the structure of atoms. Discovered in 1897 by J.J. Thomson, electrons are classified as leptons, a family of particles that do not participate in strong nuclear interactions. They possess a rest mass of approximately 9.109 x 10^-31 kilograms, which is about 1/1836 the mass of a proton.

Electrons are key players in atomic structure and chemical bonding. They orbit the nucleus of an atom in regions called electron clouds or orbitals, where they exhibit wave-particle duality, behaving both as particles and as waves. The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus determines an element's chemical properties and reactivity.

The electric charge of an electron is fundamental and quantized, with a value of approximately -1.602 x 10^-19 coulombs. Electrons are responsible for electrical conductivity in metals and other materials; their movement under an electric field constitutes an electric current. They also participate in electromagnetic interactions, mediating forces between charged particles through the exchange of virtual photons.

In quantum physics, electrons are described by wave functions that provide probabilities of locating them in space and time. They exhibit phenomena such as electron diffraction and tunneling, which are essential to many modern technologies including semiconductors, lasers, and electron microscopes.

Electrons play a crucial role in various physical, chemical, and biological processes. Their fundamental properties and behaviors underpin much of modern science and technology, making them some of the most extensively studied particles in physics.