Archaeometallurgy

Archaeometallurgy is the study of past metal production and use through archaeological evidence and scientific analysis of metal artifacts and residues. It seeks to understand how metals were extracted from ores, refined, alloyed, forged, cast, and finished, as well as how metal objects were used, traded, and recycled within and between societies. The field covers a broad range of materials, including copper, bronze, iron, lead, tin, gold, and silver, and encompasses early metallurgical practices in agriculture, warfare, religion, and everyday life.

Researchers combine field excavation with laboratory techniques. They document furnace remains, tuyères, slag, crucibles, and tools to reconstruct smelting and smithing technologies. Analytical methods include metallography to reveal microstructure, and compositional analyses by X-ray fluorescence, Inductively Coupled Plasma mass spectrometry, or scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Isotopic analyses help identify ore sources. Experimental archaeology, such as reproducing furnaces and smelting cycles, complements observational data. Chronologies are built by dating associated artifacts and organic materials.

Archaeometallurgy emerged as a distinct interdisciplinary field in the 20th century, expanding with advances in materials science and analytical chemistry. Its findings illuminate technological choices, craft specialization, economic organization, and long-distance exchange. The discipline also addresses preservation challenges, such as slag deposition and corrosion, and emphasizes contextual interpretation over mere technical description. By linking material composition and production to social and economic patterns, archaeometallurgy contributes to understanding the technological profile of past communities worldwide.