socialcapital

Social capital is a concept describing the resources accessible through social networks, emphasizing the value created by relationships, shared norms, and trust that enable cooperation and collective action. It is not a property owned by an individual but is embedded in the social fabric of communities and organizations, arising from repeated interactions and mutual obligations.

The literature distinguishes several forms of social capital. Bonding social capital refers to ties within homogeneous groups, such as family or close friends, that provide strong support but can be inward-looking. Bridging social capital spans diverse groups and can facilitate the flow of information and opportunities across social boundaries. Linking social capital connects individuals and groups to structures of power and institutions that hold different levels of authority, enabling access to resources and influence.

Trust, reciprocity, and norms of cooperation are the core mechanisms by which social capital operates. These elements lower transaction costs, improve information exchange, coordinate collective action, and enable social support during times of need. Together, networks and norms can enhance economic performance, health, education, civic engagement, and resilience, though effects vary by context and measurement.

Key theorists include Pierre Bourdieu, who emphasized the economic value of networks; James Coleman, who highlighted social structures that enable action; and Robert Putnam, whose work on civic life popularized the idea of social capital as a driver of social cohesion. Measurement relies on indicators such as network size and density, levels of trust, participation in voluntary associations, and frequency of social interactions, but causal interpretations remain debated.

Critiques point to challenges in measurement, potential endogeneity, unequal distribution of networks, and the risk that strong in-group ties can exclude outsiders or reinforce inequality. In the digital age, online networks reshape social capital, raising questions about the quality of ties and norms in virtual spaces.