historicalEnglish

Historical English is the study of the history of the English language, including its stages, varieties, and the processes by which it evolved from its Germanic roots to contemporary forms. It examines phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, orthography, and sociolinguistic factors such as dialect and language contact.

Old English (c. 450–1100) developed from West Germanic dialects brought to Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers. It had a highly inflected grammar with strong and weak noun declensions and three grammatical genders; its vocabulary was largely Germanic, with loanwords from Norse and Latin, and it used a mix of runic and Latin letters. Middle English (c. 1100–1500) arose after the Norman conquest, bringing substantial French and Latin vocabulary. Inflectional endings were simplified; syntax and word order became more flexible, and regional dialects proliferated. Notable works from this period include Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.

Early Modern English (c. 1500–1700) featured the Great Vowel Shift and increasing standardization through the printing press, dictionaries, and grammar manuals. This period saw greater consistency of spelling and pronunciation across regions, alongside continued expansion of vocabulary. Notable authors include William Shakespeare and the translators of the King James Bible.

Late Modern English (1700–present) continued standardization, broadened global contact and borrowing, and the emergence of diverse dialects and sociolects within standardized norms. Scholars study historical English using philology, corpus linguistics, manuscript studies, and phonetic reconstruction to analyze changes over time. The study of historical English helps explain contemporary pronunciation, spelling, and the variety of English varieties seen today.