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A diffractometer is an instrument used for measuring the diffraction of waves. In most common applications, it refers to devices that measure the diffraction of X-rays, neutrons, or electrons by a material. These techniques are primarily used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of a sample.

The fundamental principle behind diffraction is that when waves encounter a regular, repeating structure, such as the atomic lattice of a crystal, they are scattered in specific directions. These directions are governed by Bragg's Law, which relates the wavelength of the incident wave, the spacing between the scattering planes in the material, and the angle of diffraction. A diffractometer precisely measures the intensity of these scattered waves as a function of angle.

By analyzing the resulting diffraction pattern, scientists can deduce detailed information about the arrangement of atoms within the material. This includes identifying crystalline phases, determining unit cell dimensions, and in some cases, resolving the positions of individual atoms. Different types of diffractometers are optimized for specific applications and radiation sources. For example, X-ray diffractometers are widely used in materials science, chemistry, and solid-state physics, while neutron diffractometers are valuable for studying magnetic structures and light elements. Electron diffractometers are often used for analyzing thin films and nanoparticles.