Ironage

The Iron Age is an archaeological period defined by the widespread use of iron and steel for tools, weapons, and implements, following the Bronze Age. Dates and routes of adoption vary by region, but in the Near East and much of Europe it began around 1200–1000 BCE and in many places ended by the early centuries CE. In other areas, such as parts of sub-Saharan Africa, India, and China, ironworking arrived and spread on different timelines, with local technologies developing independently before or during early historical periods.

Technological core and economy: Ironworking emerged from bloomery smelting and advanced smithing techniques, enabling harder and more durable tools than bronze. The availability of iron ore and the productivity gains from iron tools contributed to agricultural expansion, craft specialization, and population growth. Iron weapons also altered military organization and politics, supporting state formation and larger-scale warfare. The Iron Age saw the growth of trade networks for ore, ingots, and finished goods, as well as urbanization and changes in material culture.

Material culture: Common iron artifacts include agricultural implements (plows, hoes), knives, axes, spearheads, and armor. Iron slag and furnace remains provide archaeological markers for production sites. The period overlaps with regional developments such as early states, empires, and writing systems, and its end is uneven, yielding to historiographical frameworks tied to classical antiquities or medieval civilizations.

Overall, the Iron Age represents a major technological and social transition driven by the spread of iron production, with regional timelines and impacts varying across continents.