paleopathology

Paleopathology is the scientific study of ancient diseases and injuries in human and animal remains, primarily using skeletal, dental, and occasionally mummified tissues. By examining pathological lesions, trauma, and markers of infection, researchers reconstruct health patterns, disease prevalence, and lifestyle factors of past populations. The discipline emerged in the 19th century with early observations of skeletal abnormalities in archaeological contexts, and it gained methodological rigor in the mid‑20th century through collaborations between archaeologists, anatomists, and physicians.

Analytical techniques in paleopathology include macroscopic inspection of bone surfaces, radiographic imaging, histological thin‑section analysis, and, increasingly, molecular methods such as ancient DNA (aDNA) sequencing and proteomics. These approaches allow identification of conditions ranging from metabolic disorders (e.g., rickets, osteomalacia) and infectious diseases (e.g., tuberculosis, leprosy) to trauma and degenerative joint disease. Dental pathology, including caries and enamel hypoplasia, provides insight into diet and stress during development.

Interpretation of pathological markers must consider taphonomic processes, differential preservation, and the possibility of post‑mortem damage mimicking disease. Comparative collections of modern clinical cases aid in distinguishing genuine ancient pathology from artefacts of burial or fossilization.

Paleopathological data contribute to broader anthropological questions about population health, social inequality, migration, and the impacts of environmental change. They also inform the history of disease, offering context for the evolution and spread of pathogens. Current research trends focus on integrating high‑throughput genetic analyses with traditional osteological assessment, enabling more precise reconstructions of ancient disease ecosystems and their interactions with human biology.