late18thcentury

The late eighteenth century, roughly spanning the 1770s through the 1790s, was a period of sweeping political upheaval, intellectual ferment, and early industrial change. It saw the culmination of the American Revolution and the drafting of the United States Constitution in the new republic, while Europe experienced the radical upheavals of the French Revolution beginning in 1789. The Haitian Revolution, starting in 1791, challenged slave systems in the Atlantic world and reshaped colonial relations. By the end of the century, ideas about sovereignty, rights, and governance had become central to political life across many regions.

Economic and technological developments accelerated during this era. The early phase of the Industrial Revolution gathered pace in Britain, with mechanization in textiles, new steam power applications, and improved transportation networks. These changes contributed to urbanization and altered labor patterns, while liberal economic thought, including the writings of Adam Smith, promoted freer trade and competition. Global commerce remained dynamic, intertwining colonial economies with evolving financial and political structures.

Advances in science and culture accompanied political and economic shifts. Antoine Lavoisier helped establish modern chemistry and a new system of chemical nomenclature, while Jenner's smallpox vaccination around 1796 marked a turning point in public health. In literature, philosophy, and the arts, Enlightenment ideas persisted in public discourse, influencing figures such as Goethe and Mozart, and contributing to the spread of critical and secular perspectives in educated society.

Society and religion experienced ongoing contrasts between tradition and reform. Abolitionist sentiments and organized campaigns emerged in various regions, challenging established practices. Religious institutions confronted secular critiques, though responses varied by locale. The political landscape of Europe evolved toward greater contestation of monarchical authority, foreshadowing the Napoleonic era that began at the century’s end.