hardwares

Hardwares refer to the tangible components that enable computers and other devices to function. They cover the physical elements of computing systems, consumer electronics, networking equipment, and industrial machinery, distinguishing themselves from software, which is intangible.

Common hardware components include the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM), storage (SSD/HDD), motherboard, power supply, and cooling systems. Graphics processing units (GPUs) are specialized accelerators. Peripherals such as keyboards, mice, displays, and printers are also hardware. Embedded and automotive hardware use microcontrollers, system-on-a-chip (SoC) devices, sensors, and actuators.

Hardware design combines electrical engineering, computer engineering, and mechanical design. Fabrication involves semiconductor manufacturing and printed circuit board (PCB) assembly, followed by testing and certification. Interoperability relies on standards such as PCIe, USB, SATA, HDMI, and DDR memory.

Lifecycle considerations include procurement, maintenance, upgrading, and end-of-life recycling. Manufacturers and institutions emphasize energy efficiency and responsible e-waste disposal, with take-back programs.

Recent trends include open hardware, modular designs, AI accelerators integrated into consumer devices, and system-on-a-chip integration, which affects software-hardware co-design and repairability.