ethograms

An ethogram is a catalogue of the observable behaviors exhibited by a species within a defined context or environment. Each behavior is described with clear, operational criteria to enable reliable identification by different observers. Ethograms can be comprehensive, listing all observed behaviors, or partial, focusing on behaviors relevant to a specific research question.

Construction typically begins with defining the study scope and the setting, followed by developing behavioral categories with precise definitions. Researchers select sampling methods—continuous recording, focal sampling, scan sampling, or all-occurrence sampling—and train observers to apply the definitions consistently. Reliability testing, such as inter-observer agreement, is commonly performed and refinements are made as needed.

Data collected from ethograms include frequency (how often a behavior occurs), duration (how long it lasts), latency (time to first occurrence), and sequences or patterns of behavior. Analysts may create time budgets, compare activity across individuals or groups, or examine responses to stimuli, environmental changes, or social context.

Applications of ethograms span behavioral ecology, welfare assessment, conservation planning, zoo and farm management, and comparative studies across species. They provide a structured framework for describing repertoires and for quantifying behavior in a reproducible way.

Limitations include context-dependence of behaviors, observer bias, reactivity to observation, and challenges in standardization across different settings. To improve quality, researchers emphasize clear, operational definitions; thorough observer training; use of video recordings; and transparent reporting of methods and coding schemes to facilitate replication and cross-study comparisons.