encima

Encima is a Spanish word used as an adverb and, in combination with de, as a prepositional phrase meaning on top of or above. In addition to describing physical position, it is also used in discourse to add information, similar to the English "moreover" or "on top of that."

Etymology and scope: Encima derives from en + cima, with cima meaning top or summit. The element cima traces back to older forms in Spanish and ultimately to Latin roots. The sense has shifted from a spatial meaning to broader figurative uses in everyday language.

Usage and examples: In literal sense, encima answers questions of location: "El libro está encima de la mesa" (The book is on top of the table). In figurative or connective use, it introduces additional points: "Llegó tarde y, encima, no trajo el informe" (He arrived late and, on top of that, did not bring the report). The phrase "encima de" is common to express position: "La lámpara está encima de la cómoda." The standalone adverb can appear at the beginning or middle of a clause for emphasis.

Idioms and regional notes: The expression "y encima" is widely used across dialects to intensify or add a subsequent complaint or fact. In some contexts, encima functions as a general intensifier in informal speech. Variants and related terms include "sobre" and "arriba," which convey similar notions of position with differing stylistic nuance.

See also: sobre, encima, arriba, ubicación.