Singlish

Singlish is an English-based creole or vernacular spoken in Singapore. It arose from the contact of English with Malay, Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Tamil and other languages during and after British colonization. While closely related to Singaporean Standard English, Singlish has distinct phonology, syntax and lexicon that reflect Singapore's multilingual environment and social dynamics. It is most often used in informal settings and among Singaporeans across ethnic groups.

Phonology and grammar features include sentence-final particles such as lah, lor, leh, meh, and ah, which convey attitude, emphasis or mood. The grammar often omits function words (for example, copula or tense marking) and uses topic-prominent order rather than the strict subject–verb–object structure of Standard English. It employs a range of aspect markers and reduplication for emphasis, and draws on a broad range of vocabularies from its substrate languages.

Usage and status: Singlish is widely spoken across age groups and ethnic communities in Singapore. It is a marker of local identity for many speakers but is often discouraged in formal settings. The government has promoted Good English to improve international communication, and there is ongoing academic debate about whether Singlish should be preserved as a linguistic resource or discouraged in schools and official media. It coexists with Singaporean Standard English and code-switching is common in daily life.

Classification and variation: Linguists disagree on whether Singlish should be analyzed as a creole, a dialect, or a heavily English-influenced variety. Many describe it as a mixed form with features borrowed from multiple languages. There are regional and social variations; different communities have their own preferences. Research continues to document its structure, usage and social meaning, including its role in national identity and intercultural communication.